(the boards = the stage)
2. She was dressed in silk and satins.
(silks and satins = dresses made of silk and satin) 3. Cotton suits you.
(cotton = garments made of cotton) 4. Better be jocund with the fruitful Grape
Than sadden after none, or bitter, fruit. (E. Fitzgerald) (grape = wine)
5.3 The Comparison of \ 5.3.1 Replace B with A; Substitute A for B
5.3.2 The Differences
Only metonymy involves substitution of the name of one thing for that of another closely associated with it, whereas synecdoche involves the substitution of the part for the whole, or the whole for the part. For instance, in the sentences metonymy:
Let's drink a cup or two. The kettle is boiling.
The pen is mightier than the sword. The gray hair should be respected.
Synecdoche:
They were short of hands. My TV is out of order.
He could hardly earn his everyday bread. The soldier is a valiant heart.
5.3.3 Conclusion
当两样事物互相没有隶属关系但又关系很紧密，说到其中一样就使人很快联想起另一样来的是借代；两者之间有隶属关系或用局部代替全部或用全部代替局部的就是提喻。 6. Understatement 6.1 Definition
Understatement is a figure of speech contains an understatement of emphasis, and therefore the opposite of hyperbole, often used in everyday speech and usually with laconic or ironic intentions. 6.2 The Differences between Understatement and Hyperbole
“低调陈述(understatement)是与夸张相反的辞格。夸张是夸大其词，而言之；低调是轻描淡写，含蓄内敛。夸张是deliberately maximize the importance，低调是deliberately minimize the importance；夸张是play up。低调是play down；夸张是high profile，低调是low profile。”(范家材：《英语修辞赏析》) 6.3 Structures
6.2.1用词汇手段来体现。 6.2.2用语法手段来体现。 6.4 The Basic Expressions 6.4.1正话反说
正话反说就是用no，not，none，never以及否定词缀等否定词与否定表达法来表述肯定的内容，这种表达方式在修辞学中有一个专门术语叫曲言法(litotes)。 Eg1.
As lean was his horse as is a rake, And he was not right fat． I undertake． (G．Chaucer)
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他的马瘦得像钉钯，骨骼清晰， 而他也不那么胖
我敢担保，真的不胖。
Eg2. Who cannot rely on an honest man? 谁能不信任这样一个正直的人?
Eg3. The face wasn't a bad one：it had what they called charm．(Galsworthy) 这张脸不算难看，它有着人们所说的妩媚。 6.4.2弱说代替强说 用弱说代替强说，常用a bit，a1most, hardly，kind of，rather，pretty, scarcely，quite, something of，sort of等低调词(downtoners)来减缩事物的重要性。这种形式也叫“弱陈法”(meiosis)。 Eg. 1. Mr. Li is something of a philosopher. 2. Her pronunciation is rather good. 6.4.3回避正面直说或不作正面的回答
这种表达方法是回避正面直说或不作正面的同答，其中含意让听话人自己去琢磨，在这样用时，以“情态动词+不定式(不定式完成式)”为多： Eg. 1. Why should you be so late today?
2. --- Do you think all the programs are good?
----- Some of the programs are interesting. But others could be better. 3. I wish I could write better.
7. Euphemism 7.1 Definition
Euphemism is a figure of speech in which something of an unpleasant, distressing, or indelicate nature is described in less offensive terms, as in the expressions “under the weather” for “ill” or “passed away” for “died”. 7.2 Main approaches 7.2.1 用语模糊
Eg. You’ve lost your license.
= Your fly is open./ Your suit is untimely. 7.2.2 用语委婉
Eg. When we came back we found him in an armchair, peacefully gone to sleep--- but for ever. 7.3 The Categories
7.3.1 Traditional Euphemism 7.3.2 Stylistic Euphemism 7.4 英汉语的构造手段不同
英语可以用语音手段、语法手段、词汇手段来构成委婉语而汉语则侧重于用词汇手段。英语用语音手段来构成委婉语，如laboratory原来的重音在第一个音节上，但这样读与lavatory相似，于是现在就把重音落在第二个音节上，而这样的手段，汉语是不存在的。 又如语法上的委婉语，英语的过去时可以表示委婉，用would，should表示委婉，汉语就不太侧重在这些方面。 8. Hyperbole
8.1 Definition
Hyperbole is a figure of speech which gently exaggerates the truth. 8.2 The Effects
8.2.1增强感染力，强化感情。
8.2.2刻画人物，生动形象，活灵活现。
8.2.3描景状物，渲染气氛，给人以深刻印象。
8.2.4幽默风趣，令人发笑，讽刺嘲弄，入木三分。
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9. Allusion 9.1 Definition
Allusion is usually an implicit reference, perhaps to another work of literature or art, to a person or an event. 9.2 Origins
9.2.1 来自《圣经》
Eg. 1. The dog returns to the vomit. 狗回头吃它自己所吐的东西。
But it is happened into them according to the time proverbs, the dog is turned to his own vomit against; and the sow that was washed to her wallowing in the mire. 2. The wind blows wherever it wishes. 风吹向它愿意吹的地方。
The wind blows wherever it pleases. You hear its sound, but you cannot tell where it comes from or where it is going. So it is with everyone born of the spirit. (Bible) 9.2.2 来自古代神话传说
Eg.1. (the) wheel of fortune 命运之轮 2. Greek Gifts 希腊人的礼物
3. The Apple of Discord 引起纠纷的苹果 9.2.3 来自民间俚语
Eg. 1. Weasel words 黄鼠狼式言辞（以假乱真） 2. wet blanket 湿毯子(败兴之人或事) 9.2.4 来自习俗
Eg. Take somebody down a peg. 放下某人的拴钩（杀杀某人的威风） 9.2.5 来自文学作品
Eg.1. take the wall of 靠着墙行走（占人上风）《罗密欧与朱丽叶》第一幕第一场
2. pound of flesh 一磅肉（合法但不合情理）莎士比亚戏剧《威尼斯商人》
3. Tess 苔丝（比喻纯洁无辜的女人）英国作家哈代的长篇小说《德伯家的苔丝》 4. The Thousand and One Night 天方夜谭（离奇的荒诞不经的事情） 9.3 New Allusion 9.3.1出自政治
Eg. 1.Water gate Affairs水门事件（政治性丑闻）gate 丑闻的后缀标志 2. He did a Jorden. (快捷、准确的好身手，多用于篮球) 9.3.2 出自文学作品
Eg. 1. Catch-22 (处于无法摆脱的困境，进退维谷的局面) 源于美国小说家约瑟夫·赫勒出版于1961年的同名小说。
2. Godzilla （独霸一方、不可战胜）日本东宝制片公司1954年创造出来的银幕怪兽形象，在此后40多年的岁月中长映不衰，成为该公司的看家戏。美国索尼娱乐影片公司后来从东宝手下买下版权，于1998年推出了巨片《怪兽戈兹拉》。 9.3.3 出自科技与商贸
Eg. 1. This is the Cadillac of Chinese tea. 这是中国一流名茶
凯迪拉克(Cadillac)是美国有名的轿车，专喻那些质量优良名声响亮的东西。 2. The bond price will Yo-Yo. 债券的价格会上下波动。
Yo-Yo是一种拉线盘玩具的商标名，由于它已成了家喻户晓的著名商标，所以它又成了新的典故，用以指“上下起落的东西”或“左右摇摆的东西”。 第三章 对照并列类修辞格
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10. Antithesis
10.1 Definition
Fundamentally, antithesis reveals contrasting ideas sharpened by the use of opposite or noticeably different meanings. 10.2 Four Forms 10.2.1 Words
Eg. back and forth; in and out; up and down;
fire and water; joys and sorrows; body and soul; by hook or (by) crook; hot and strong
English puts emphasis on “hypotaxis”(形合)，while Chinese attaches importance to “parataxis”(意合) 10.2.2 Phrases
Eg. I had walked into that reading room a happy healthy man. I crawled out a decrepit wreck. More haste, less speed.
10.2.3 Clauses
Eg. What between the poor men I won’t have and the rich men who won’t have me, I stand as a pelican in the wilderness. 10.2.4 Sentences
Eg. Craft men contemn studies; simple men admire them; and wise men use them. A miser grows rich by seeming poor. An extravagant man grows poor by seeming rich. Metaphor comes from Association by Similarity, Metonymy from Association by Contiguity, and Antithesis from Association by Contrast. 10.3 Effects
10.3.1使判断准确
10.3.2使作品语言风趣幽默
10.3.3 揭示事物内部对立统一的辩证关系，不但加强了语势，而且因为句式平分匀称，读起来朗朗上口，记忆深刻。
11. Parallelism 11.1 Introduction
In parallel construction it is necessary to balance word for word (noun with noun, verb with verb. adjective with adjective, etc.), phrase with phrase, clause with clause, sentence with sentence.
E.g. (1) Not parallel: The child was pretty and had brains. Parallel: The child was pretty and intelligent. (2) Not parallel: He sat down and was beginning to work. Parallel: He sat down and began to work.
To make the parallelism clear, it is essential to repeat, as the ease demands, the marker of the parallelism, such as an article, a preposition, the “to” of an infinitive, or the introductory word of a main or subordinate clause.
E.g. (3) She was a good hostess and an accomplished pianist. (4) You can go there on foot, by bus, or by train.
(5) It is important to know how to study and to learn how to plan one's time. (There are two sets of parallelisms here. ) (6) Do you know who will come and when they will arrive?
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