The careless omission of such markers will lead to awkward, if not unidiomatic sentences. E.g. (7) (X) I will wait until you call or she comes.
(√) I will wait until you call or until she comes. (8) (X) She is a swimmer and artist.
(√) She is a swimmer and an artist.
However, it is permissible to leave out such markers if their omission does not cause ambiguity, awkwardness, or unidiomaticity.
E.g. (9) She likes to read, swim, and play tennis. (I0) We ran go there by bus, train or plane.
Parallel constructions are also introduced by correlative conjunctions such as either… or, neither… nor, both… and, not only. . . but also, whether...or, and rather. . . than. E.g. (11) You may either go with them or stay behind. (12) She was both their friend and teacher.
(13) 1 would rather go shopping than visit the parks. 11.2 The Forms
11.2.1Parallelism in Words
Eg. Women were running out to the line of march, crying and laughing and kissing the men good-bye.
Bob is a hard hitter, a sure fielder and swift runner. 11.2.2 Parallelism in Phrases
Eg. It was not anger, nor surprise nor disapproval nor horror nor any of the emotions that she had been prepared for.
11.2.3 Parallelism in Clauses
Eg. This is the man who has stirred three hundred million people to revolt who has shaken the foundations of the British Empire and who has introduced into human politics the strongest religious impetus of the last two thousand years. 11.2.4 Parallelism in Sentences
Eg. Kind hearts are the gardens, kind thoughts are the roots, kind words are the flowers, kind deeds are the fruits.
11.3在Parallelism中，三项式用得最多。
11.4 与contrast, antithesis 的区别：
Parallelism由结构相同或相似的两项或两项以上构成，antithesis则一般仅由结构相同或相似的两项构成，而contrast却不要求结构相同或相似；Parallelism表达相近或相关的意思，antithesis则表达相反或相衬的意思，而contrast只表达相反的意思。 12. Paradox 12.1 Definition
A Dictionary of Literary Terms: A paradox is a figure of speech consisting of a statement or proposition which on the face of it seems self-contradictory, absurd or contrary to established fact or practice, but which on further thinking and study, may prove to be true, well-founded, and even to contain a succinct point.
12.2 英语的某些警句、格言、谚语中常使用paradox 这一辞格，使其说明的哲学道理更生动活泼，言简意赅，给人留下深刻印象。 Eg. The child is father of the man.
A little learning is a dangerous thing.
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A lover of peace emerged as a magnificent leader of war.
12.3用于文章中，使文章富于哲理，意味深长，有时还可以使文章显得格外幽默、风趣。 Eg. In fact, it appears that the teachers of English teach English so poorly largely because they teach Grammar so well.
12.4在某些新闻标题或文章题目以及广告中也常用这一辞格，使之不但醒目而且简洁。 Eg. One of the First Things About Owning It Is Selling It. Loving and hating New York. 13. Oxymoron 13.1 Introduction
An Oxymoron is a compressed paradox, formed by the conjoining of two contrasting, contradictory or incongruous terms, as in -- bitter-sweet memories
-- proud humility: this refers to the quality of being humble, but not servile
-- orderly chaos: chaos (confusion, disarray) exists, but there is some method or order in the way the things are thrown around.
An oxymoron can be formed in various ways, the most common being the following: a) adj. + noun a living death
conspicuous absence tearful joy jarring concord b) adj. + adj. cold pleasant manner poor rich guys c) adv. + adj. dully bright mercifully fatal d) verb + adv. hasten slowly
shine darkly
c) noun + noun a love-hate relationship
As in paradox, the appreciation of an oxymoron comes from trying to find the hidden truth, the subtle significance in otherwise conflicting images or ideas. 13.2 The Effects
13.2.1 revealing strong feelings
Eg. No light, but only darkness visible.
13.2.2 showing striking contrasts
Eg. The mother is undergoing the joyful pain, and the painful joy of childbirth. 13.2.3 having humorous and ironic effects Eg. I like a smuggler. He is the only honest thief 13.2.4 playing concise and comprehensive roles
Eg. Dudly Field Malone called my conviction a \14. Anticlimax 14.1 Definition
A Dictionary of Literary Terms: It is a sentence in which the last part expresses something lower than the first. In fact, a bathetic declension from a noble tone to one less exalted. The effect can be comic and is often intended to be so.
eg. It lifts his spirit above material concerns and inspires in him noble thoughts. It also makes him
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hungry.
What shall I do? I have lost my beau and lipstick too. 14.2 Effects
14.2.1 Humorous Effects
eg. I am told several pickpockets are here. Let them remember that the eye of God on them, and also that there are a number of policemen in the house. 14.2.2 Satirical Effects
eg. To a gentleman whose servant was putting on his shoes for him, Diogenes said, \ou won’t be really happy until he wipes your nose for you: that will come after you lose the use of your hands.
14.2.3 Unexpected Effects
eg. He has been a doctor a year now and has had two patients -- no three, I think-- yes, it was three; I attended their funerals. 第四章 反复类修辞格 15. Repetition 15.1 Definition
Webster's Dictionary of the English language: In rhetoric, the iteration or repeating of the same words, or of the meaning in different words, for the purpose of making a deeper impression on the audience. 15.2 Three Factors
cognitive factors, psychological factors, social factors
eg. There is nothing so bad or so good that you will not find Englishman in the wrong. He does everything on principle. He fights you on patriotic principles; he robs you on business principles; he enslaves you on imperial principles.
(Bernard Shaw: The Man of Destiny) 15.3 Classification
15.3.1 Repetition in Writing 15.3.1.1 Immediate Repetition Eg.
Happy, happy pair None but the brave, None but the brave, 15.3.1.2 Intermittent Repetition
1. 首语反复 (anaphora) 2. 尾语反复 (epiphara)
3. 首语反复+尾语反复(simploce)
4. 首尾反复 (epanalepsis)
例①: We shall go on to the end, we shall fight in France, we shall fight on the seas and oceans, we shall fight with growing confidence and growing strength in the air, we shall defend on the beaches, we shall fight on the landing grounds, we shall fight in the fields and in the streets, we shall fight in the hills... ( W. Churchill : \首语反复)
例②: Oh! But o'tis a scadalous employment, to write for bread! ... What are all employment in the world pursue for, but for bread! (尾语反复)
例③: I will recruit for myself and you as I go; I will scatter myself among men and women as I go.
None but the brave deserves the fair.
(Dryden: \
5. 尾首反复 (anadiplosis) 6. 层进反复(climax repetition) 7. 逆转反复 (antistrophe
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(首语反复+尾语反复)
例④: Like draws like. （首尾反复）
例⑤: The King was bad tempered because he was often ill. He was often ill because he ate and drank too much. (尾首反复)
例⑥: For glances beget ogles, ogles sighs, sighs wishes, wishes words, and words a letter. (Byron)(层进反复) 惊鸿一瞥则频送秋波；频送秋波则惊叹不已；惊叹不已则遐思飞扬；遐思飞扬则欲叙．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．衷肠；欲叙衷扬则化作情书一封。 ．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．
例⑦: We eat to live, not live to eat. (逆转反复) 15.3.2 Repetition in Dialogue 15.3.2.1 Repetition in Monologue 15.3.2.2 Repetition in Dialogue 15.4 The Effects
15.4.1 Showing Astonishment
Eg. Pierre: What does a new evening dress cost? Mathild: About four hundred francs.
Pierre: Four hundred! That's a lot of money. 15.4.2 Showing Sorrow
Eg. Lear: And my poor fool is hanged.
No, no, no life! Why should a dog, a horse, a rat, have life,
And thou no breath at all? Thou'it come on more,
Never, never , never, never, never! (Shakespeare: King Lear ) 15.4.3 Showing Appreciation
Eg. Strength went like battle with their words,
The men of Forty-eight. Hurrah !
For the men of Forty-eight. (Gerald Massey: \ 15.4.4 Showing Satire
Eg. He doesn't say much, and when he does, he doesn't say much. 16. Alliteration
16.1 Definition
Alliteration is the repetition of an initial sound, usually of a consonant or cluster, in two or more words of a phrase, line of poetry, etc. 16.2 Familiar Tongue-twisters
Eg. Peter piper picked a pet of pickled pepper. She sells seashells on the seashore, 16.3 The Forms
16.3.1 词首元音的重复
eg. Apt alteration’s artful aid is often an occasional ornament in prose. 16.3.2 词首辅音的重复
eg. The preyful princess pierced and pricked a pretty pleasing pricket Some say a sore; but not a sore, till now made sore with shooting...
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