1: language and language teaching
What is language?
1. Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human
communication.
2. The answer to this question is the basis for syllabus design, teaching methods,
teaching and assessment procedures in the classroom.
3. Different views on language generate different teaching methodologies. Common Views on language
1. Structural view （language competence） — The founder: Saussure
— The structural view of language sees language as a linguistic system made up of various subsystems (Larsen-Freeman & Long, 1991): phonology, morphology, and syntax.
— The target of language learning is seen to be the mastery of elements of this system, which are generally defined in terms of phonological units (e.g., phonemes), grammatical units (e.g., clauses, phrases, sentences), grammatical operations (e.g., adding, shifting, joining, or transforming elements), and lexical items (e.g., function words and structure words).
— Learning the language is to learn the structural items, study the inner structure and rule of language, ignore the social functions of the language. 2. Functional view
— Representative: Johnson, Marrow, swain canal (the core: grammar)
— It views language as a vehicle for the expression of functional meaning, a means of doing things/ combining grammatical rules and vocabulary to express idea.
3. Interactional view （communicative competence） — Emphasis: appropriateness
— It views language as a vehicle for the realization of interpersonal relations and for the performance of social transactions between individuals.
— Language is seen as a communicative tool for the creation and maintenance of social relations.
— Learners need to know the rules for using the language in certain contexts What makes a good language teacher?
1. A good language teacher does not solely depend on his/her command of the language. There are a variety of element that contributes to the qualities of a good language teacher. These elements can be categorized into three groups: ethic devotion, professional quality and personal styles. How can one become a good language teacher? Wallace’s (1991) ‘reflective model’ 1. Stage 1: language development
2. Stage 2: learning, practice, reflection
1) The learning stage is the purposeful preparation that a language normally
receives before the practice. This preparation can include:
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? Learning from others’ experience ? Learning the received knowledge
? Learning from one’s own experiences 2) The practice stage (2 senses)
Pseudo practice: short period of time assigned to do teaching practice as part of one’s pre-service education, usually under the supervision of instructors
The real classroom teaching: what a teacher undertakes after he/she finishes formal education
3) Teachers benefit from practice if they keep on reflecting on what they have
been doing
3. Goal: professional competence
2: theory of language learning and language learners
1. Fluency
1) Different levels of fluency： [1] time-filling
[2] quality of speech
[3] appropriacy of speech [4] aesthetic capability
2) In terms of second or foreign language environment, fluency means a level of proficiency in communication (Richards, 1992). 3) Four kinds of abilities:
[1] the ability to produce spoken language with ease;
[2] the ability to speak with a good but not necessarily perfect command of
intonation, vocabulary, and grammar;
[3] the ability to communicate ideas effectively;
[4] the ability to produce continuous speech without causing comprehensible
difficulties or a breakdown in communication.
2. Accuracy
1) Accuracy refers to the ability to produce grammatically correct sentences but may not include the ability to speak or write fluently. 3. Interaction
1) Interaction pushes learners to produce more accurate and appropriate language, which itself provides input for other students. (Hedge, 2002) 2) Forms of Interaction [1] Teacher—Students [2] Students—Students
? Pair work ? Group work
3) Advantages of group work and pair work: [1] Students are more involved. [2] More language practices
[3] Generating interactive language.
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[4] Offering an embracing affective climate. [5] Developing co-operative learning
[6] Promoting learner responsibility and autonomy. 4) Problems of group work and pair work
[1] The teacher is no longer in control of the class. [2] The class is noisy.
[3] Students will use their native language.
[4] Students' errors will be reinforced in small groups. [5] Teacher cannot monitor all groups at once. [6] Some learners prefer to work alone.
[7] There are dominant or silent speakers (chauffeurs and hitchhikers). [8] Students talk about other things.
[9] No time to practice fully or finish the task. 5) Typical group work tasks [1] Games [7] Information gap [2] Role-play and simulations [8] Jigsaw [3] Drama [9] Problem-solving and [4] Projects decision-making [5] Interview [10] Opinion exchange [6] Brainstorming
6) Before the start of group work/pair work tasks [1] Introduce the technique
[2] Justify the use of pairs or small groups for the technique [3] Model the technique
[4] Give explicit, detailed instructions ? a restatement of the purpose ? rules to follow
? stay with your group
? share ideas and information ? listen to other people's ideas ? help each other ? English only
? establish a time frame
? assign roles (if any) to students [5] Divide the class into groups [6] Check for clarification [7] Set the task in motion
? Do not sit at your desk and grade papers. ? Do not leave the room and take a break.
? Do not spend undue amount of time with one group at the
expense of others.
? Do not correct students' errors unless asked to do so.
? Do not assume a dominating or disruptive role while monitoring
groups.
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? reporting
? demonstrating
? working on points which needs improving
4. Learning and communication strategies
1) Learning strategies are steps taken by students to enhance their own learning. Appropriate language learning strategies result in improved proficiency and greater self-confidence. --Oxford, 1990 2) Learning strategies (O’Malley et al, 1983) [1] Metacognitive strategies
? Metacognitive strategies are used to oversee, regulate or self-direct
language learning, which include how learners regulate their learning by planning, monitoring and evaluating their learning activities. --Rubin, 1987 ? advance organizer ? self-monitoring ? directed attention ? delayed production ? selective attention ? self-evaluation ? self-management ? self-reinforcement ? advance preparation [2] Cognitive strategies
? Cognitive strategies refer to the steps or operations used in learning
or problem-solving that require direct analysis, transformation, or synthesis of learning materials. --O’Malley et al, 1983 ? repetition ? key word ? grouping ? contextualization ? note-taking ? elaboration ? deduction ? transfer ? auditory ? inferencing [3] Social mediation strategies
? Social mediation strategies/Communication strategies are those
activities learners engage in which afford them opportunities to be exposed to and practice their knowledge. ? cooperation ? question for clarification 3) Compensatory strategies
[1] enable learners to use the new language for either comprehension or
production despite limitations in knowledge.
[2] Compensatory strategies are intended to make up for an inadequate
repertoire of grammar and, especially, of vocabulary. [3] Knowledge sources for comprehension
(1) Knowledge needed
? Schematic knowledge: Schematic knowledge or schemas (schemata) refers to one’s general knowledge about the world and about text types, which are cognitive constructs for the organization of information in our long-term memory. ? background knowledge: actual, sociocultural
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? procedural knowledge: how knowledge is used in discourse ? Contextual knowledge
? knowledge of situation: physical setting, participants, etc. ? knowledge of co-text: what has been, will be said
? Systemic knowledge: syntactic, semantic, morphological
(2) Roles of the knowledge
? allowing for effective guess (system knowledge)
? building meanings by drawing on a wider range of sources
(including semantic and contextual knowledge. Sound recognition is not enough.)
? making effective inference (previous knowledge)
? Cutting down the range of possible meanings (situational
context)
? meaning understanding is required bottom-up and top-down
processes
5. comprehensible output
1) Output can serve a consciousness-raising function by helping learners to notice gaps in their interlanguages.
2) Output helps learners to test hypotheses.
3) Learners sometimes talk about their own output, identifying problems with it and discussing ways in which they can be put right. 6. Enlightenment
1) Teachers should encourage students to test hypotheses and to notice gaps in interactive processes.
2) Students are supposed to learn English by using English and interacting with others.
3. communicative principles and task-based language teaching
1. CLT（交际英语教学）:
1) Definition: Communicative Language Teaching is an approach that focuses
on linguistic functions and on training communicative competence of the learners. It includes both the knowledge about the language and the knowledge about how to use the language appropriately in communicative situations.
2) The basis: the theory of sociology and sociolinguistic.
3) Communicative Competence: Four aspects included (Hymes, 1979):
[1] knowing whether or not something is formally possible (grammatically
acceptable), which is roughly equivalent to Chomsky's linguistic competence.
[2] knowing whether something is understandable to human beings. [3] knowing whether something is in line with social norms;
[4] knowing whether or not something is in fact done: Do people actually use
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