What Haber discovered-and it won him a Nobel prize--was that some iron compounds were acceptable catalysts. Even with such catalysts extreme pressures (up to 600 atmospheres in early processes) and temperatures (perhaps 400 V)are necessary 在化工厂中要得到可观的NH3 的转化率，我们有必要使用催化剂。Harber 发现的催化剂（这使他获得诺贝尔奖）。是一些价廉的含铁的化合物。即使有该催化剂，这反应也需要很高压力（早期高达600 个大气压）和高温（大约4000C）
Pressure drives the equilibrium forward，as four molecules of gas are being transformed into two. Higher temperatures. However, drive the equilibrium the wrong way，though they do make the reaction faster、chosen conditions must be a compromise that gives an acceptable conversion at a reasonable speed. The precise choice will depend on other economic factors and the details of the catalyst. Modem plants have tended to operate at lower pressures and higher temperatures (recycling unconverted material) than the nearer-ideal early plants, since the capital and energy costs have become more significant．
因为四个气体分子转化为两个气体分子，所以增加压力使平衡向右（正方向）移动。然而，尽管高温使反应速度加快, 但是高温使平衡向右移动, 因此，所选的条件必须要折中的能以合理的速率得到令人满意的转化率。条件的准确选择将取决于其他的经济因素和催化剂的具体情况。因为资本和能耗费用越发重要，当代的工厂已经趋向于比早期工厂在更低的压力和更高的温度（循环使用未转化的物料）下进行操作。
Biological fixation also uses a catalyst which contains molybdenum(or vanadium)and iron embedded in a very large protein．the detailed structure of which eluded chemists until late 1 992．How it works is still not understood in detail.
氮的生物固定也使用了一种催化剂，该催化剂镶在较大的蛋白质分子中含有钼和铁，其详细结构直到1992 年才被化学家弄清楚，该催化剂的详细作用机理尚未清楚。
Raw materials．The process requires several inputs：energy，nitrogen and hydrogen．Nitrogen is easy to extract from air，but hydrogen is another problem．Originally it was derived from coal vi coke which can be used as a raw material(basically a source of carbon)in steam reforming．where steam is reacted with carbon to give hydrogen，carbon monoxide and carbon dioxide．Now natural gas(mainly methane)is used instead，though other hydrocarbons from oil can also be used．Ammonia plants always include hydrogen producing plants linked directly to the production of ammonia.
原料。该过程需要以下几种原料（进料）的能源、N2 和H2。N2 很容易从空气中提取，但是H2 的来源很成问题。以前，H2 来源于通过煤的焦化反应，煤用作蒸汽重整的原料（主要是C 的来源），在蒸汽重整过程中，水蒸气与C 反应生成H2、CO 和CO2。如今，以天然气（主要是甲烷）代替，如今，以天然气（主要是甲烷）代替，尽管也使用来自石油的烃类物质。通常，制NH3 的工厂包括与NH3 生产相连接的H2 生产车间。
Prior to reforming reactions，sulphur-containing compounds must be removed from the hydrocarbon feedstock as they poison both the reforming catalysts and the Haber catalysts．The first desulphurisation stage involves a cobalt-molybdenum catalyst, which hydrogenates all sulphur -containing compounds to hydrogen sulfide．This can then be removed by reaction with zinc oxide (to give zinc sulfide and water)．
在重整反应之前，含硫化合物必须从烃原料中除去，因为它们既能污染重整催化剂又能污染Harber催化剂。第一除硫步骤需要钴-铜催化剂。该催化剂能将所有的含硫化合物氢化生成H2S，H2S 能与ZnO反应（ZnS 和H2O）加以除去。
The major reforming reactions are typified by the following reactions of methane (which occur over nickel-based catalysts at about 750~C)：
主要的重整反应中，下列甲烷反应最为典型（甲烷的反应发生于约7500C.含镍催化剂上） Other hydrocarbons undergo similar reactions 其他烃经历类似反应。
In the secondary reformers, ir is injected into the gas stream at about 1 100~C. In addition to me other reactions occurring, the oxygen in the air reacts with hydrogen to give water, leaving a mixture with close to the ideal 3:1 ratio of hydrogen to nitrogen with no contaminating oxygen. Further reactions, however, are necessary to convert more of the carbon monoxide into hydrogen and carbon dioxide via the shift reaction.
在次级重整器中，空气注入温度11000C 的气流，除了发生其他反应外，空气中的O2 与H2 反应生成H2O，结果剩下不会污染的O2 的混合物，该混合物中O2 与H2 的比接近理想比3：1.然而，下一步反应必须通过下列转化反应将更多的CO 转变为H2 和CO2 。
This reaction is carried out at lower temperatures and in two stages(400~C with an iron catalyst and 220℃with a copper catalyst)to ensure that conversion is as complete as possible．
为使其尽可能完全的转化，此反应应该在较低温度下以两步进行（一步是在4000C 用铁为催化剂，另一步是在2000C 下用催化剂）。
In the next stage, carbon dioxide must be removed from the gas mixture, and this is accomplished by reacting the acidic gas with an alkaline solution such as potassium hydroxide and/or mono, or di-ethanolamine． 下一步中，CO2 必须从气体混合物中除去。除去CO2 可以用该酸性气体与碱性溶液（如KOH 和（或）单乙醇胺或二乙醇胺反应得以实现。
By this stage there is still too much contamination of the hydrogen—nitrogen mixture by carbon monoxide(which poisons the Haber catalysts), and another step is needed to get the amount of CO down to ppm levels. This step is called methanation and involves the reaction of CO and hydrogen to give methane(i.e.the reverse of some of the reforming steps)．The reaction operates at about 325℃and uses a nickel catalyst．
这一步中，任然存在CO（污染Harbor 催化剂）对H2-N2 混合物造成很大污染，需要用另一步去将CO 得量降低至PPM 级，这一步称为甲烷化反应，涉及到CO 和H2 反应生成甲烷（即一些重整反应的逆反应），该反应大约在325℃操作，用一种Ni 催化剂。
Now the synthesis gas mixture is ready to go into a Haber reaction．合成气混合物准备用于Harbor 反应
Ammonia production. The common features of a11 the different varieties of ammonia plant are that the synthesis gas mixture is heated，compressed and passed into a reactor containing a catalyst．The essential equation for the reaction is simple：
NH3 的生产各种不同氨厂的共同特征是合成经过加热，压缩，递往含成催化剂的反应器中，该基本反应方程式很简单：
What industry needs to achieve in the process is an acceptable combination of reaction speed and reaction yield．Different compromises have been sought at different times and in different economic circumstances．Early plants plumped for very high pressure (to… reactor)．but many of the most modem plants have accepted much lower one-pass yields at lower pressures and have also opted for lower temperatures to conserve energy．In order to ensure the maximum yield in the reactor the synthesis gas is usually cooled as it reaches equilibrium. This can be done by the use of heat exchangers or by the injection of cool gas into the reactors at an appropriate point．The effect of this is to freeze the reaction as near to equilibrium as possible. Since the reaction is exothermic (and… temperatures) the heat must be carefully controlled in this way to achieve good yields.该工业要实现的事：反应速度和反应产率的结合要令人满意， 不同的时期和不同的经济环境下谋求不同的折中方案，早期的制
氨厂热衷于高压反应（其目的是在单程反应器中提高产率）但是当今大多数氨厂采用在较低的压力，很低的单程转化率，同时为节能而选择较低温度。为了确保反应器中的转化率最大，通常在当反应达到平衡时，冷却合成气，使用热交换器或者在反应器的合适位置注入冷却氨，可实现合成气的冷却，这样做的作用是：在反应在尽可能接近平衡使其冷冻停止，因为此反应时放热反应（同时在较高温度下的平衡对氨的合成时不利的）所以为了得到好的收率，可以用这种方法，对热量进行很好的控制。
The output form the Haber stage will consist of a mixture of ammonia and synthesis gas so the next stage needs to be the separation of the two so that the synthesis gas can be recycled. This is normally accomplished by condensing the ammonia (which…- 40 C)
哈伯法的产物由氨和合成气混合物（组成）因此，下一步需要将两者进行分离以能循环利用合成气，这可以压缩氨气得以实现（氨气的挥发度较其他组成小得多，大约在-40℃沸腾
Uses of ammonia. The major use of ammonia is not for the production of nitrogen-containing chemical for further industry use, but for fertilizers such as urea or ammonium nitrates and phosphate. Fertilizers consume 80%of all the ammonia produced．In the USA in 1991,for example, following ammonia-derived products were consumed, mostly for fertilizers (amounts in millions of tonnes): urea(4.2);ammonium sulphate (2.2): ammonium nitrate (2.6);diammonium hydrogen phosphate(13.5).
氨的用途氨的主要用途不是用于进一步应用的含氨化合物的生产, 而是用于生产肥料（如尿素,硝酸铵和磷酸铵）。肥料消耗了所生产氨的80%。例如：在1991 年美国消费的由氨得来的产物如下:其中大部分用作肥料（数量以百万吨计）尿素（4.2 百万吨）硫酸铵（220万吨）,硝酸铵（260万吨），磷酸氢二铵（1350万吨）。
Chemical uses of ammonia are varied．The Solvay process for the manufacture of soda ash uses ammonia, though it does not appear in the final product since it is recycled. A wide variety of processes take ln ammonia directly, including the production of cyanides and aromatic nitrogen -containing compounds such as pyridine. The nitrogen in many polymers (such as nylon of acrylics) can be traced back to ammonia, often via nitriles or hydrogen cyanide．Most other processes use nitric acid or salts derived from it as their source of nitrogen. Ammonium nitrate, used and nitrogen-rich fertilizer, also finds a major use as a bulk explosive.
氨的化学应用各式各样，尽管在制备纯碱的索维尔工艺中氨气得到回收而没出现于最终产品中，但是该过程需要使用氨气，很多过程直接吸收氨气，这些过程包括氰化物和芳香族含氮化合物（如吡啶）的生产。许多聚合物（如尼龙和丙烯酸类聚合物）中的氮可以追溯到氨，通常通过睛或氰（HCN）大多数的其他过称（工艺）以氨制的硝酸或硝酸盐作氮源，硝酸铵，用作含氮的肥料，它的另一种主要用途用作大众化炸药。
2. Nitric Acid 2 硝酸
Production. Much of the nitrogen used by the chemical industry to make other raw materials is not used directly as ammonia rather, the ammonia is first converted into nitric acid Nitric acid production consumers about 20% of all the ammonia produced.
硝酸的生产化学工业制造其他原料时，所用的大部分氮元素不是以氨的形式直接利用，而是先将氨转化为硝酸，硝酸的生产大约消耗所生产的氨的20%
The conversion of ammonia to nitric acid is a three-stage process: 氨生成硝酸的转化反应是一个三步过程：
The first reaction is catalyzed by platinum (in practice platinum-rhodium gauze),as can be observed on the bench with a piece of platinum wire and some concentrated ammonia solution,It might, at first sight, seem that the overall reaction to the acid would be easy;
unfortunately, there are complications as nature is a good deal less tudy than chemists and engineers would prefer.
第一个反应用铂（实际上是铂铑金属网）催化，该催化反应可以再实验室上用一根铂丝和浓氨水溶液观察到。初看起来，生成硝酸的总反应似乎很简单，所不幸的事，实际过程比化学家和工程师所想的要糟的多，因此，存在许多复杂的因素。
Industrially the first reaction is carried out at about 900`C in reactors containing platinum-rhodium gauze, the temperature being maintained by the heat produced by the reaction. At these temperatures some important side reactions are also first. First, the ammonia and air mixture can be oxidized to dinitrogen and water(this … cooled). Secondly the decomposition of the first reaction product, nitric oxide, to dinitrogen and oxygen is promoted by the catalyst. It is therefore important to get the product out of the reactor as fast as possible, though this must be balanced against the need to keep the raw materials in contact with the catalyst long enough for them to react. Thirdly, the product, nitric oxide, reacts with ammonia to give dinitrogen and water, so it is important not to let too much ammonia through the catalyst beds or the result will be wasted raw material that cannot be recovered. Control of these conflicting needs is achieved by careful reactor design and by fine control of temperature and flow-rate through the reactors. The actual contact time is usually about 3*10-4s.
工业上，第一反应于含铂铑金属网的反应器中，在900 度左右进行，温度由该反应产生的热量得以维持，在该温度下，一些重要的副反应也进行得很快，其一，氨和空气混合物能被氧化生成氨气和水（如果反应器器壁的温度高，那么该反应趋向于在壁上进行，因此有必要特意将之冷却），其二，催化剂可促进第一反应的产物NO 的分解，生成氨气和氧气，因此重要的是尽可能快地将产物移出反应器，尽管这一做法与下列事实相矛盾：为使原料和催化剂得以反应，有必要保持原料与催化剂接触时间足够长。其三：反应产物NO 与氨反应生成氨气和水，因此重要的事，不让过多的暗器流过催化剂床层，否则，原料不可回收而浪费。利用精心设计的反应器，控制温度和通过反应器的流速可以实现这些矛盾要素的控制。通常该反应的实际接触时间约3×10-4 秒
The second and third stages have fewer complications, but both are slow and there are no known–cost–effective -catalysts. Typically, a mixture of air and nitric oxide is passed through a series of cooling condensers where partial oxidation occurs, the reaction is favored by low temperatures. the nitrogen dioxide is absorbed from the mixture as it is passed down through a large bubble-cap absorption tower; 55%~60% nitric acid emerges from the bottom. 第二步和第三步反应复杂性较小，但是，两者的反应速度很慢，尚未发现高效的催化剂，一般的，令氨气和NO 的混合物流经一系列的冷凝压缩器，在这些压缩器中发生部分氧化反应，低温对该反应有利。当混合气体流经大型泡罩吸收塔时，NO2 从该混合气体得以吸收，塔底为55%— 60%硝酸
This nitric acid cannot be concentrated much by distillation as it forms an azeotrope with water at 68%citric acid. Nitric acid plants typically employ a tower containing 98% sulphuric acid to give 90% nitric acid from the top of the tower. Near 100% acid can be obtained if necessary by further dehydration with magnesium nitrate.
因为硝酸在68%时与水形成共沸物，所以不能用蒸馏法加工以浓缩，硝酸厂通常利用含98%的硫酸塔在其塔顶去生成90%硝酸，如有必要，利用硝酸镁对之进一步脱水可得到接近100%的硝酸
Uses of nitric acid.About 65% of all the nitric acid produced is reacted with ammonia to make ammonium nitrate; 80% of this is used as fertilizer, the rest as an explosive. The other major use of nitric acid is in organic nitrations. Almost all explosives are ultimately derived
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