31. literary words: words used in formal writings or literature. 32. extension: a specific word comes to mean a general idea.
33. specialization: the change of the word meaning may move in the opposite direction, a
word with general reference is narrowed to a specific reference.
34. elevation: words of derogatory association become words of favorable association. 35. degradation: neutral words or words of favorable association degenerated into
derogatory words.
36. metaphor: a covert comparison 37. litotes: understatement
38. irony: a figure of speech that takes the form of saying or implying the opposite of what
one feels to be the case
39. compound sentence: a sentence made up of two or more simple sentences, joined
together by conjunctions or punctuations
40. periodic sentence: one that is not grammatically complete until the end is reached 41. loose sentence: one that may be brought to a grammatical close before the end is reached 42. elliptical sentence: one in which either the subject or the predicate or part of the
predicate is missing
43. inverted sentence: one in which the subject position is filled by other sentence elements 44. antithesis: a figure of speech in the formula of X conj. Y with a contrast between them 45. parallelism: a rhetorical device in which two or more than two similar syntactic
structures with different words are placed side by side
46. repetition: a rhetorical device in which identical words are used but not necessarily in
identical position
47. deviation: violation of standard use of the language
48. cataphora: If the referred item comes after the referring item in a text, then it is a case of
cataphora.
49. progressive conjunction: one sentence that joined by the use of conjunctive words of
addition or progression
50. field of discourse: the topic under discussion or the nature of the activity in which
language is involved
II. Answer the following questions (50 points; in test it contains 5 questions):
1. What is the relationship between form and content?
One way of talking about style is to make a distinction between form and content. Content is the message or information or the communicative value that is encoded or loaded in a linguistic expression. Form is the particular way of expressing the message. The form is the style which may be different from case to case although the meaning may remain the same. For example, the Chinese term 开始 may be expressed in
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different English words, such as start, begin and commence, but each suggests a different style.
2. What are the differences between language and speech?
Another way of talking about style is to make a distinction between language and speech, which may be translated in Chinese as 语言 and 言语. This distinction was first proposed by Saussure, the founder of the modern linguistics. According to Saussure, there are four major differences between language and speech.
A. Language is abstract whereas speech is concrete. Language is abstract in the sense
that it has only psychological instead of physical existence. Language is not something that you can bring to the classroom and examine under the microscope, not something you can hear, see, smell , touch or taste. Speech is concrete in the sense that it has physical properties. Either can be heard in the spoken form or seen in the written form.
B. Language is potential whereas speech is actual. Language is potential in the sense
that it is a kind of can-mean system, while speech is something that has an actual meaning.
C. Language is code whereas speech is message(语言是一个代码系统，言语才是信
息). Language is a set of symbols that can be used to transmit information. Speech is the actual use of the language in an act of communication in a particular situation for a particular purpose. It carries a real message.
D. Language is stable and systematic whereas speech is subject to personal and
situational constraint. For example, the word book in the English language always refers to some printed matter. But in speech it may be used to refer to anything that the speaker wants to refer to by the use of it as long as it is understandable. The common example is the sentence: He is a walking dictionary (a kind of book) meaning that he is very knowledgeable.
3. What is the methodology of stylistic analysis? What are the levels of stylistic analysis?
The major methodology for stylistic analysis is linguistic analysis. It tries to be objective or scientific in its analysis. According to the advocates of this methodology, anyone using this methodology to analyze a given text of literature will reach roughly the same conclusion. Levels of analysis
Since stylistic analysis is a kind of linguistic analysis, naturally, how many levels of structure we have in a language correspondingly how many levels of structure at which we may do stylistic analysis. 1) Phonological
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Phonological analysis is chiefly concerned about the sound patterns of a piece of literature, especially those of poetry. 2) Lexical
Lexical analysis is chiefly concerned about the internal structure and the stylistic coloring and the semantic relationship of the words in the text. 3) Syntactical
Syntactical analysis is chiefly concerned about how the words in a text are put together to produce meaning and other kinds of message. 4) Discoursal
Discoursal analysis is concerned about how sentences are joined together to produce a cohesive and coherent text.
4. Define paralinguistic features. What are they?
Definition: the vocal effects caused by different shaping of the vocal cords and openings. Kinds and the corresponding stylistic effects.
1) Whispery voice: utterance without any vocal cord vibration at all. Emphasizing
contrast.
2) Breathy voice: utterance where there is too much breath for the needs of the
articulation, the effect being one of mild ‘puffing and blowing’. Expressing surprise and astonishment.
3) Creaky voice: a slow crackle of vocal cord vibrations at a low pitch, like a stick
being run along a fence.
4) Falsetto: a switch of the voice from one vocal register to a higher one; usually found
only in males.
5. What are the three ways of studying the sound of language?
A. articulatory phonetics
The study of the sounds of a language with special attention to the speaker: the movement of the lungs, vocal cords, tongue, the lips and other organs which produce and control the noisy outward breathing. B. acoustic phonetics
The study of the physical properties of the sound waves in the air when being transmitted from the speaker to the hearer. C. auditory phonetics
The study of how the sound of speech is received by the hearer
6. What are the four typical meters in English poetry?
In English poetry, stress is usually used in the realization of meter. The followings are
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the four most typical meters.
1) Iamb: Iamb is a metric foot consisting of an unstressed syllable followed by a
stressed syllable.
2) Trochee: Trochee is a metric foot consisting of a stressed syllable followed by an
unstressed syllable.
3) Anapest: Anapest is a metric foot composed of two unstressed syllables followed by
one stressed one.
4) Dactyl: Dactyl is a metric foot composed of one stressed syllable followed by two
unstressed ones
7. What is the relationship between sound and meaning?
According to Saussure, the relationship between sound and meaning is arbitrary in the sense that why a certain meaning takes a particular sound has no reason and it is completely accident. But in literature, the writers always try to arrange the words in such a way as to make the patterns of sound to directly suggest the meaning.
8. What is the relationship between style and the choice of words, according to the
stylisticians?
The stylisticians’ attitude: they lay emphasis on the adaptability to the situation. Standard, non-standard, black, dialectal, slang, archaisms are equally good in their expressiveness. There is no distinction of one being superior and other being inferior.
9. How many kinds of word meanings may be classified? And what are they?
According to the linguists, a word has various kinds of meaning. The first kind of meaning is denotative meaning. 1) Denotative (概念意义)
The kind of meaning we can get from the dictionary. It can also be termed as dictionary meaning, conceptual meaning, logical meaning and referential meaning. This is the most basic meaning that we understand a word has. 2) Stylistic = social (社会意义)
The kind of meaning associated with a particular social situation in which a particular word is often used. e.g begin, start, commence 3) Affective meaning(情感意义)
It is the emotional, attitudinal and evaluative coloring of a word. e.g. cunning and clever. Both mean the skillful handling of a delicate or difficult situation. But they reveal different attitudes and evaluation of the speaker. 4) Collocative (搭配意义)
Some words may have the same dictionary meaning, but they collocate with
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