1. Morpheme：The smallest unit in terms of relationship between expression and content, a unit which can not be divided without altering or destroying the meaning whether it is lexical or grammatical. 2. Types of Morphemes
1) Free Morphemes (Free form) bed, tree, sing, dance
one that may constitute a word ( free form) by itself or it can be used on its own. 2) Bound Morphemes ( Bound Form) -s, dogs dis-, disclose distempered One that may appear with at least one other morpheme, i.e. it is never used alone but must be used with another morpheme. 3) Root ( Base Form)
free root morpheme black blackbird bound root morpheme -ceive receive 4) Affix is collective term for the type of formative that can be used only when added to another morpheme .作用 举例 functions of affixes: inflectional derivational
inflectional affixes(曲折词缀): they are affixes attached to the end of words to indicate grammatical relations. Stars smaller walking
derivational affixes: they are affixes added to other morphemes to create new words. -in sit-in -ship horsemanship
3. Derivation is defined as the formation of words by adding affixes to roots or by combining two bound roots。
4. Compounding is defined as the formation of new words by joining two or more stems.
5. Characteristics of Compounds 举例
1)Semantic features a greenhouse a greenroom a greenhorn
2)Grammatical features v. + n call boy n. + pp home made a. + pp new-born
3)Phonetic features
compound a `grand piano a `black bird a `hot house Free phrase a grand `piano a black `bird a hot `house 4)Orthographic features silkworm honeybee open
6. Backformation is an abnormal type of word-formation where a shorter word is coined by deleting an imagined affix, an already existing longer word in the vocabulary. Beggar beg
7. Several types of backformation: 举例 1) A noun of a person who does sth. is back formed to a verb showing action. Burglar burgle typewriter typewrite housekeeper 2) Abstract nouns are back formed to a verb.
Diagnosis diagnose emotion emote air-conditioner air-condition 3) Adverbs are back formed to a verb.
sidling sidle darkling darkle groveling grovel 4) Adjectives are back formed to a verb by getting rid of y.
Greedy greed lazy laze to speed-read speed-reading
8. Conversion is the formation of new words by converting words of one class to another class.
Adjective to noun: full conversion partial conversion (1) Words fully converted from adjective
common adjectives: a white a native finals drinkables
participles and others: a given a drunk young marrieds newly-weds (2) Words partially converted the poor the young the more affluent (1)与(2)的不同并举例：（1）有不定冠词 indefinite article和“+S”复数 plural，（2）有定冠词 definite article，通常指一类人 kind of people
9. Blending is the formation of new words by combining parts of two words or a word plus a part of another word. four major groups 举例
1) head + tail autocide automobile + suicide motel motor + hotel Transistor transfer + resistor 2) head + head Amerind American + Indian sitcom situation, + comedy 3) head + word medicare medical + care autocamp automobile + camp 4) word + tail workfare work + welfare newscast news+ broadcast 10. Clipping : The way of making a word, i.e. to shorten a longer word by cutting a part off the original and using what remains instead omnibus bus
11. Acronymy is the process of forming new words by joining the initial letters of names of social and political organizations or special noun phrases and technical terms.
Initialisms与acronyms不同点与举例：读音不同 1) Initialisms are words pronounced letter by letter
A. D. Anno Domini B. C. Before Christ LA Los Angles Types of initialisms ：①Letters represent full words: VIP Very Important Person ②Letters represent constituents in a compound or just parts of a word TV television DJ Disc Jockey 2) Acronyms are words formed from initial letters but pronounced as a normal word. V-Day Victory Day NATO the North Atlantic Treaty Organization 12. Reduplication is a minor process of word-formation by which a compound word is created by the repetition.
13. Words from Proper Names :The transition from proper names to common words is a gradual one. They come from all sources, from names of scientists, politicians and statesman to trademarks, and place names. Some have originated from characters in literature, TV films and movies, but some also come from book titles.
14. Conventionality refers to the arbitrariness between a sound and meaning. Motivation refers to the connection between a word and its meaning.
15. Grammatical Meaning consists of word-class and inflectional paradigm and is the same in identical sets of individual forms of different words.
Part of speech of words Singular and plural meaning of nouns Tense meaning of verbs and their inflectional form
Lexical Meaning is the component of meaning proper to the word as a lexical item. 16. Conceptual meaning ：denotative meaning is its definition given in a dictionary. It is that aspect of lexical meaning which makes communication possible.
17. Connotation meaning refers to the emotion association which a word or a phrase suggests in one?s mind; it is the supplementary value which is added to the purely denotative meaning of a word.
18. Associative meaning: the secondary meaning supplemented to the conceptual meaning
19. Affective meaning is concerned with the expression of feeling and attitudes of the speaker or writer.
20.Collocative meaning consists of the associations a word requires in its collocation 21. Synonymy Synonyms can be defined as words different in sound and spelling but most nearly alike or exactly the same in meaning. 22. Sources of Synonyms 举例 1) Borrowing mingling of Latin, French and native elements couplets and triplets Native room foe help Foreign chamber enemy aid 2) Dialects and regional English
Br.E lift lawyer Am.E elevator attorney 3) Figurative and euphemistic use of words
occupation walk of life (fig.) dreamer star-gazer (fig.) drunk elevated ( euph.) lie distort the fact( euph.) 4) Coincidence with idiomatic expressions
win gain the upper hand decide make up one?s mind finish get through hesitate be in two minds help lend one a hand
23. Discrimination of Synonyms 举例
denotation connotation application
1) Difference in denotation(外延) differ in the range and intensity of meaning timid: the state of mind in which a person may happen to be at the moment, and the habitual disposition timorous: disposition
comprehend /understand rich / wealthy work / toil
I did not comprehend his arguments, although I understood the language, and all the sentences
2) Difference in connotation (内涵意义) stylistic and emotive coloring of words answer / respond handy / manual handy / manual
3) Difference in application collocations & sentence patterns allow / let answer / reply lump, slice, chunk, sheet, cake
a lump of sugar, a slice of meat, a chunk of wood, a sheet of paper, a cake of soap
24. Antonyms are words which are opposite in meaning
25. Homonymy is generally defined as words different in meaning but either identical both in sound and spelling or identical only in sound or spelling
26. Hyponymy deals with the relationship of semantic inclusion. i.e.the meaning of a more specific word is included in that of another more general word.
大题：
1．Blending：four major groups:
1）head + tail Autocide= automobile + suicide,Motel =motor + hotel Slurb=slum + suburb
2）.head + head sitcom=situation + comedy； Comsat =communications + satellite; telex =teleprinter + exchange
3）.head + word Medicare = medical + care; Eurasia =Europe + Asia 4).word+tailBookmobile=book+automobile;Workfare= work + welfare
2.convertion. Adjective to noun.1）Words fully converted. (indefinite
article)Common adjectives:A white
， a liberal，Finals Participles and
others:A given，a drunk 酒鬼(2) Words partially converted.（definite article） the rich，the young
3. Characteristics of Compound
1).Semantic features :A greenhouse/a greenroom/a greenhorn2). Grammatical features:Call boy/cut-throat v. + n. ; Home made/book-learned n. + pp.
3). Phonetic语音 features: eg.Compound/Free phrase A ?grand piano/a grand ?piano; A ?black bird/a black ?bird 4). Orthographic 拼写features
Silkworm/honeybee/solid/tear gas/easy chair/open
4.sources of synonyms:4. i) brrowing: mingling of Latin ,French and native
element.eg.room/chamber;help/aid;leave/depart.(native/foreign) 2)dialects and regional English.
EG. lift/elevator;lawyer/attotney;pavement/sidewalk;chemist/druggist. 3)figurative and euphemistic use of words:occupation/walk of life(fig.);dreamer/stargazer（fig）
4）coincidence with idiomatic expressions。Win/gain the upper hand;decide/make one?s mind;hesitate/be in two minds. 5.discrimination of synonyms:
discrimination of synonyms.3
1)difference in denotation (differ in the range and intensity of meaning) timid/timorous. timid: the state of mind in which a person may happen to be at the moment, and the habitual disposition. timorous: disposition.
2)connotation: stylistic and emotive coloring of words . eg. answer /respond, unlike/dissimilar, storm/tempest.
3)application : collocations and sentence patterns. Eg.allow/let, answer/reply, sense/meaning, empty /vacant.
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