imprisoned, or deprived of his property except by the law of the land; (3) the church should possess all its rights and privileges; (4) London and other towns should retain their ancient rights and privileges; (5) there should be the same weights and measures throughout the country. The Great Charter was a statement of the feudal and legal relationship between the Crown and the barons, a guarantee of the freedom of the Church and a limitation of the powers of the king. The spirit of the Great Charter was the limitation of the powers of the king, but it has long been regarded as the foundation of English liberties.
5. What do you know about the English Renaissance? —— Renaissance was the revival of classical literature and artistic styles in European history. It began in Italy in the early 14th century and spread to England in the late 15th century. The English Renaissance had 5 characteristics: (1) English culture was revitalized not so much directly by the classics as by contemporary Europeans under the influence of the classics; (2) England as an insular country followed a course of social and political history which was to a great extent independent of the course of history else where in Europe; (3) Owning to the great genius of the 14th century poet chaucer, the native literature was vigorous enough and experienced in assimilating foreign influences without being subjected by them; (4) English Renaissance literature is chiefly artistic, rather than philosophical and scholarly; (5) the Renaissance coincided with the Reformation in England. The English Renaissance was largely literary, and achieved its finest expression in the so-called Elizabethan drama. Its finest exponents were Christopher Marlowe, Ben Jonson, and William Shakespeare.
6. Why did the Restoration take place? —— When Oliver Cormwell died in 1658 and was succeeded by his son, Richard, the regime began to collapse. One of Cromwell’s generals occupied London and arranged for new parliamentary elections. The Parliament thus was elected in 1660, and to resolve the crisis, it asked the late king’s son to return from his exile in France as king Charles II. It was called the Restoration.
7. How did the “Glorious Revolution” break out? What was the significance of it? —— In 1685 Charles II died and was succeeded by his brother James II. James, who was brought up in exile in Europe, was a Catholic, He hoped to rule without giving up his personal religious views. But England was no more tolerant of a Catholic king in 1688 than 40 years. So the English politicians rejected James II, and appealed to a Protestant king, William of Orange, to invade and take the English throne. William landed in England in 1688. The takeover was relatively smooth, with no bloodshed, no any execution of the king. This was known as the Glorious Revolution. William and his wife Mary were both protestants and became
co-monarchs. They accepted the Bill of Rights. It’s the beginning of the age of constitutional monarchy.
8. What is your comment on land enclosures in England? —— Agricultural enclosure became frequent in the late 18th and early 19th centuries. It has good as well as bad results: (1) Farms became bigger and bigger units as the great bought up the small; (2) more vegetables, more milk and more dairy produce were consumed, and diet became more varied; (3) enclosure was a disaster for the tenants evicted from their lands by the enclosures. They were forced to look for work in towns, which rapidly became hopelessly over crowded. It also lead to mass emigration, particularly to the New World; (4) a new class hostility was introduced into rural relationships. Concentration of land in fewer hands increased the price of land and dashed the labourers’ hopes of even owning his own land. Many became wage labourers, earning low rates in spite of agriculture’s new prosperity.
9. How did the English Industrial Revolution proceed? —— The Industrial Revolution began with the textile industry. It’s characterized by a series of inventions and improvements of machines, such as John Ray’s flying shuttle, James Hargreaves’ spinning Jenny, Richard Arkwright’s waterframe and Samuel Cropton’s mule. The Scottish inventor James Watt produced a very efficient steam engine in 1765, which could be applied to textile and other machinery. The most important element in speeding industrialization was the breakthrough in smelting iron with coke instead of charcoal in 1709. Similar developments occurred in the forging side of the iron industry which enabled iron to replace wool and stone in many sectors of the economy. Improved transporation ran parallel with production. As a result of the industrial revolution, Britain was by 1830 the “workshop of the world”; no other country could compete with her in industrial production.
10. What do you know about the Chartist Movement and the People’s Charter? What’s your comment on them? —— The Chartist Movement was an industrial working class movement that happened in England from 1836 to 1848. In 1836 a group of skilled workers and small shopkeepers formed the London Working Men’s Association. They drew up a charter of political demands (known as the People’s Charter) in 1838, which had six points: (1) the vote for all adult males, (2) voting by secret ballot, (3) equal electoral districts, (4) abolition of property qualifications for members of Parliament, (5) payment of members of Parliament, and (6) annual Parliament, with a General Election every June. Support for these six demands was loudly voiced all over the country. Other working men formed Chartist groups throughout the country to press Parliament to accept the 6 points. But Parliament rejected them for three times. In the end, the Chartist
Movement failed. It failed because of its weak and divided leadership, and its lack of coordination with trade-unionism. The working class was still immature. The Chartist Movement, however, the first nation wide working class movement and drew attention to serious problems. The 6 points were achieved very gradually over the period of 1858-1918, although the sixth has never been practical.
11. How did the Labour Party come into being? —— As the new working class became established in the industrial towns in the late 18th century, they became aware of the power which they could possess if they acted together instead of separately. So various working class organizations were formed which brought about the formation of the Labour Party. The Labour Party had its origins in the Independent Labour Party, which was formed in January, 1893 and Led by Keir Hardie, a Scottish miner. The foundation of an effective party for labour depended on the trade unions. In 1900, representatives of trade unions, the ILP, and a number of small societies set up the Labour Representation Committee (LRC). The LRC changed its name to be Labour Party in time for the general election which was called for 1906. The Labour Party remains one of the two major parties in Britain until today.
12. What is a constitutional monarchy? When did it begin in Britain? —— A constitutional monarchy is a governmental system in which the head of State is a king or a queen who reigns but does not rule. The country is namely reigned by the Sovereign, but virtually by His or Her Majesty’s Government —— a body of Ministers who are the leading members of whichever political party the electorate has voted into office, and who are responsible to Parliament. The Constitutional Monarchy in Britain began in 1689, when king William and Queen Mary jointly accepted the Bill of Rights, which guaranteed free speech within both the House of Lords and the House of Commons and constitutional monarchy, of a monarchy with power limited by Parliament began.
13. What is the role of the Monarchy in the British government? —— The sovereign is the symbol of the whole nation. In law, he/she is head of the executive, an integral part of the legislature, head of the judiciary, the commander-in-chief of all the armed forces of the crown and the “supreme governor” of the established church of England.
14. What are the main functions of Parliament? —— The main functions of Parliament are: (1) to pass laws; (2) to provide the means of carrying on the work of government by voting for taxation; (3) to examine government policy and administration, including proposals for expenditure; (4) to debate the major issues of the day.
15. Why do the criminal convicts like to be tried first before the magistrates’ courts? —— A Magistrates’ court tries summary offences and “either way” offences. It is open to the public and the media and usually consists of three unpaid “lay” magistrates. A magistrates’ court sits without a jury. The criminal law presumes the innocence of the accused until he has been proved guilty beyond reasonable doubt; every possible step is taken to deny to the prosecution any advantage over the defence. No accused person has to answer the questions of the police before trials; he is not compelled to give evidence or to submit to cross-examination in court.
16. What does the civil courts system do? —— The civil courts system does the following jurisdiction: (1) actions founded upon contract and tort; (2) trust and mortgages cases; (3) actions for the recovery of land; (4) cases involving disputes between landlords and tenants; (5) admiralty cases and patent cases; and (7) divorce cases and other family matters.
17. What is meant by the term “welfare state” in Britain? —— The welfare state is a system of government by which the state provides the economic and social security of its citizens through its organization of health services, pensions and other facilities. The system is funded out of national insurance contributions and taxation. In Britain the term applies mainly to National Health Service (NHS), national insurance and social security.
18. What is the most important established Church in Britain? How is it related to the Crown and linked with the State? —— The most important established Church in Britain is the Church of England. It is uniquely related to the Crown in that the Sovereign must be a member of that church and, as “Defender of the Faith”, must promise on his or her accession to uphold it. Church of England archbishops, bishops and deans of cathedrals are appointed by the Monarch on the advice of the Prime Minister. The Church is also linked with the State through the House of Lords, in which the two archbishops (of Canterbury and York), the bishops of London, Durham and Winchester, and 21 other senior bishops of London, Durham and Winchester, and 21 other senior bishops have seats
19. What distinguishes the Open University from all other British Universities? —— The Open University is non-residential university which is “open” to all to become students. It offers degree and other courses for adult students of all ages in Britain and other member countries of the EU. It was founded in 1969 and began its first courses in 1970. It was a combination of specially produced printed texts, correspondence tuition, television and radio broadcasts and audio/video cassettes. For some courses, there are residential schools. There is a network of study centers for contact with part-time tutors and counselors, and with fellow students.
20.Say something about the three immigration waves. —— The first
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