中 北 大 学 信 息 商 务 学 院
毕业论文 外文文献原文及译文
学生姓名： 林慧萍 学号： 08060341X08 系 别： 电子与计算机科学系 专 业： 计算机科学与技术 指导教师： 郭铁成
2012 年 5 月
Old and New Models for Office Automation
Elliot Cole
The emerging generation of office automation systems combines new and existing software and procedures. While managers may be able to select from a broad array of software tools, they may also be required to use certain others. This article discusses organization design as the context for office automation; mature computer based systems as one application of organization design variables; and emerging office automation systems as another application of those variables. The article concludes that Management Information System models developed for mature systems may be helpful where the use of software application is required for the individual worker; diffusion of innovation models recently developed for computing systems may be helpful where the type of software is optional for the individual worker. The emerging generation of office automation systems combines new concepts and components with existing ones. While there may be a combination of first-time applications for some organizational activities, there may be replacement applications for others. Our ability to understand and plan for office automation depends on the availability and adequacy of our models. This article examines some of the assumptions underlying office automation, and then evaluates the adequacy of current models applied to the analysis and implementation of both the first-time and replacement applications. The article begins with a discussion of office automation's context factors in organization design. Next is a discussion of mature computer-based information systems, particularly Management Information Systems (MIS), followed by their similarities and different from emerging information systems. The final section examines the use of diffusion of innovation models and their relevance to office automation studies within the scope of Information Science.
Organization Design
Organization design is concerned with the structure and function of organizations, and
consequently occupies a central role in office automation activities. Such design involves two basic elements, the types of positions in organizations and control over task structure. Office automation systems assume the presence of both these elements. Types of Personnel
Computers have been assisting humans for nearly 40 years. What makes the earlier user
communities different from the emerging communities is the level of positions that are affected. Now managers are becoming end-users.
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In the past, white collar workers have been classified as professional, managerial, and clerical, based on the horizontal (breadth) and vertical (depth) specialization of their tasks. Professional positions have great vertical specialization, i.e., they require great depth of knowledge in a narrow area. In contrast, management positions require great horizontal specialization, i.e., they require great breadth of knowledge but with narrow depth. Managers are considered generalists rather than specialists. Clerical positions are narrow in breadth and depth. The first computer users were professionals (scientists) who applied information technology to extend the capabilities of their work teams. These %use Landau, Bair, and Shalom terminology, included solving complex mathematical problems. Today's computer users routinely include a broad spectrum of professionals who use these tools in pure research, applied research, and professional practice. Next, clerical personnel became users. Computers appeared in functional areas of organizations with large clerical staffs, what man calls the first office automation revolution. In these areas, applications included transaction processing, for example, payroll, inventory, and order-entry. Automation was introduced principally for what Landau, Bair, and Shalom call \applications, saving labor costs by substituting capital for labor.
Currently, the user community is expanding to include management staff. Few managers in organizations of any size have been untouched by computer services and systems. At a minimum, they have received computer printout reports. At most, they may have used systems through some intermediary. In the emerging generation of office automation, as Martin has described, managers are expected to become hands-on users of an array of software.
An objective of this generation of office automation is to remove certain tasks from managerial and professional positions by reallocation to a combination of clerical positions and information processing hardware and software. Open systems models of organizations, discussed by Daniel in this issue of Perspectives, provides an understanding of these design issues.
Control Task Structure
Task structure includes both (1) what work one is to perform, and (2) how one is to perform it. It is the \was prominent early in this century, deciding how work was to be performed was a management responsibility, not merely a management prerogative. Followers of this school of thought directed their attention primarily to the production activities of industry. Responsibility for structuring the tasks for clerical workers is still generally considered to rest with management.
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Many of the tasks of those workers have been described as routine, standardized, structured, and consequently easily rationalized, i.e., separated into a set of simple steps. It is this last quality that facilitates automating the function. In the Human Relations school of thought, development of participatory management allows the workers to have an input in the design of their tasks—even a substantial input—but the responsibility for granting and approving the input has remained with management. In effect, the manager has standardized the work processes of clerical and production line workers. Organizations have several means of assuring that they are able to produce an output which is consistent. Among these mechanisms are: (1) standardization of process—the procedures which are to be followed
in performing a task, (2) standardization of output—specifications which each unit must meet, and (3) standardization of skills—instruction on how work is to be performed. This standardization extends to the forms that are used, the tools applied, and the manner in which they are applied.
In contrast, the manager is given abroad latitude over the processes to perform his or her job. The organization of one's work has been considered a prerogative of the manager, although Stress man has challenged this view as a means of organization's better managing its information flow. In effect, this latitude represents a standardization of the \not of the \the processes which produce this output. The flexibility of the manager's choice of work processes allows for the development of work habits, which to the external observer may seem idiosyncratic. The tools used by the manager in drafting memos and reports—whether pencil and paper, pen and paper, dictation machine, or typewriter— are generally a personal choice rather than an organizational mandate. This flexibility has long allowed management (and professional staff) to choose to bring work home. During media transformations, secretarial staff may reformat information prepared by the manager to conform to the organization's format, should one exist.
For professionals, what tasks they perform, and how the tasks are to be performed are set out in codes of conduct which provide formal and informal guidelines. This is a means of external control in standardizing the process of organizational work. Professional workers also perform some tasks which are similar to those of managerial staff, e.g., supervising projects and people. These tasks may be controlled by the organization according to its standardization of output. In summary, differences in the control over task structure can be seen in professional, managerial, and clerical personnel. While managerial and clerical tasks have been largely the provinces of their organization—internally controlled—professional tasks involve the
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professional society's standards of acceptability, and thus are externally controlled. In this respect, the organization has relatively less control over the task structure and work processes for professional staff than for managerial and clerical staff. Office automation is designed to have an impact on the task structure, i.e., the process by which one performs an activity. These differences in task structure control raise the possibility of it being a mediating variable in office automation models; differences in task structure control may lead to qualitative differences in office system designs.
Computer-Based Information Systems
Office automation includes a range of systems, including a variety of software and data. The combination may include databases which receive input from many organizational units and functional areas as well as personal databases. Some systems are designed to be used by many workers in a mandatory and specified manner as part of the job requirements and as a condition of employment. Other systems may be used to mechanize a task at the option of the user; the user is also free to perform that task manually. Existing Systems with Required Use
Management Information Systems (MIS) are a principal class of information system for modern organizations. MIS collects data for a database, manipulates it, and produces reports to a broad spectrum of managers concerned with decision making and accountability. Many data entry tasks are small components of larger MIS, with global databases spanning organization units and being continually updated. In order for the system to process information properly, data entry personnel must use the system in a prescribed manner. If they do not, the accuracy and validity of the receiving database may be compromised. There is no room for individual creativity or innovation on the part of individuals providing input to the system's database. Transaction processing stuff use software according to a standard manual which applies to all workers with similar responsibilities. Systems can be sabotaged by personnel in the data input chain who cannot or will not provide complete and accurate data for the database.
MIS have a number of characteristics relevant to emerging office systems. First, MIS are integrated across organization functions and levels of responsibility. Individuals cannot unilaterally change system procedures without compromising the system. Second, MIS automate some organizational communication and information flows through collection and manipulation of input data. Third, MIS are planned and designed to serve stated organizational functions and objectives. Fourth, workers, particularly those providing input data, must use the system, and use it in a prescribed manner.
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