外文翻译
原文
Tourism and Socio-economic Development in Developing Countries:A
Case Study of Mombasa Resort in Kenya
Material Source: Department of Tourism Management, Moi University, Eldoret,
Kenya
Author: John S. Akama and Damiannah Kieti
This paper looks at issues surrounding sustainable tourism as a tool for local socioeconomic development in Kenya, using the case study of Mombasa Resort Town. Illustrated by primary data from field interviews and surveys in Mombasa, backed by secondary data, it finds that due to the nature of the Kenyan tourism industry (external control and management of tourism establishments, limited local involvement and high leakage rates), the industry has not played an effective role in local
socio-economic
development.Ways
forward
are
suggested.
doi:
10.2167/jost543.0
Keywords: tourism in developing countries, sustainable tourism development, socio-economic development, Kenyan tourism, community tourism
Introduction
The concept of sustainable tourism strives to harmonise and reconcile issues of intergenerational equity, and the goals of economic growth, environmentalprotection and social justice. It recognises the need for fairness between localindividuals and groups, and between hosts and guests (Mbaiwa, 2005). If the concept of sustainable tourism is transformed into action, it is expected to contribute to the sustainability of the environment, social and cultural resources and overall socio-economic development. The increasing popularity of the concept derives from the widely held view that there is a need to alter current forms of consumption that perceive existing resources as being infinite.
A lot of attention has been paid to the economic and ecological aspects of sustainable development, especially at the national level (Roe & Khanya, 2001; Scheyvens, 2002), but little has been given to the analysis of the implications of
sustainable tourism on specific local communities and on the industry’s impact on the quality of life and on socio-ecological aspects of communities that are directly affected by the tourism industry, particularly in developing countries
such as Kenya. This paper addresses those issues. Tourism development in Kenya Kenya provides a good example of a developing country that has embraced tourism as a tool for socio-economic development. Kenya has increasingly become a popular tourist destination for visitors fromEurope, North America andemerging tourist-generating regions, particularly South-east Asia (Table 1). The country receives over 6% of the total international tourist arrivals to Africa, and the relative importance of tourism in Kenya’s economy has risen steadily over the last 40 years (Kenya Government, 2004). However, to be of any meaning to marginalised local communities and individuals, especially in developing countries such as Kenya, tourism development should be part of a broader alternative policy framework that is designed to achieve a sustainable society. Sustainable tourism development should, therefore, not be seen as an end in itself, but as one of the several alternative development strategies that can assist local communities overcome their socio-economic and developmental weaknesses, preserve their strengths and enhance their developmental opportunities. Table 1 Departing visitors by country of residence and purpose of visit, 2000–2001 (‘000)
Country of Residence Holiday Business Transit Total 2000 2001 2000 2001 2000 2001 2000 2001 Germany 187.0 179.7 4.4 4.2 24.7 19.0 206.1 202.9
United Kingdom 119.9 115.2 17.3 16.6 11.0 14.3 148.2 146.1 Switzerland 19.9 19.1 2.6 2.5 3.4 4.4 25.9 26.0 Italy 24.6 23.6 2.9 2.8 2.8 3.6 30.3 30.1 France 18.9 18.2 2.7 2.6 3.1 4.0 24.7 24.8 Scandinavia 16.1 15.5 2.2 2.1 2.7 3.5 21.0 21.1 Other Europe 147.6 141.8 3.3 3.2 15.4 20.0 166.5 165.0 Total Europe 534.0 513.1 35.4 34.0 53.1 68.8 622.5 615.9 USA 44.7 43.0 5.1 4.9 4.3 5.6 54.0 53.4 Canada 14.2 13.6 1.9 1.8 2.2 2.9 18.3 18.3
Total North America 58.9 56.6 7.0 6.7 6.5 8.4 72.3 71.7 Uganda 14.3 13.7 21.2 20.4 4.4 5.7 39.9 39.8 Tanzania 25.2 24.2 5.7 5.5 11.7 15.2 42.6 44.9 Other Africa 30.8 29.6 17.5 16.8 14.3 18.5 62.6 64.9
Total Africa 70.3 67.6 44.4 42.7 30.4 39.4 145.1 149.6 India 12.1 11.6 2.4 2.3 2.3 3.0 16.7 16.6 Japan 10.4 10 1.2 1.2 1.1 1.4 12.8 12.6 Israel 5.9 5.7 0.8 0.8 0.4 0.5 7.2 7.0
Other Asia 12.7 12.2 3.3 3.2 3.0 3.9 29.2 19.3 Total Asia 41.1 39.5 7.7 7.4 6.8 8.8 55.6 55.7 Australia and New Zealand
13.9 13.4 1.7 1.6 1.8 2.3 17.3 17.3
All other countries 54 51.9 0.8 0.8 4.9 6.3 59.7 59.0 Total 772.2 742.0 97.0 93.2 103.5 134.1 972.7 969.3
Mombasa is the leading tourist centre in Eastern Africa, with the highest concentration of tourism and hospitality facilities and infrastructure. Mombasa and adjacent townships receive over one third of international tourist arrivals to Kenya. However,Mombasa in particular, and the Kenyan coastal region in general, is classified by the government as one of the regions with a high incidence of poverty and poor living conditions for local people (Kenya Government, 2004). It has been estimated that over 50% of the residents of Mombasa live below the poverty line, earning less than US$ 1 per day. In the Kenyan context, the poverty line is the level at which an individual’s income does not meet ‘a minimum standard required to meet his or her basic needs such as food, shelter, sanitation and clean water supply’ (Kenya Government, 2004: 195). Over half of Mombasa’s 500,000 residents cannot afford a decent meal, do not have access to clean water or basic sanitary facilities and can neither afford basic health care nor pay school fees for their children. Often the people living below the poverty line have no regular employment, their income is small and irregular and they lack basic capital to start micro-scale business enterprises in tourism and other sectors. Quite often, the children of people living below the poverty line do not attend school and even when they do, the dropout rate is quite high. Hence, most of the children rarely go beyond elementary school. The consequences of this abject poverty and social deprivation is reflected in an increased incidence of insecurity, theft, drug-taking and trafficking, prostitution, hunger and malnutrition, high mortality rate, high levels of illiteracy, an increased incidence of child labour, domestic violence and family breakups
(Kenya Government, 1999a, 1999b).
In this regard, it should be asked, if tourism is a main economic sector in
Mombasa and other centres in Kenya, what role is the industry playing in the improvement of the living conditions of the local people? Is tourism an appropriate tool for sustainable local socio-economic development? This study addresses some of the critical issues on sustainable tourism development, particularly as it relates to equitable distribution of the tourism benefits to different stakeholders, local participation in tourism decisionmaking processes, the leakage rate and multiplier effects of tourism and its marketing.
Methodology This research uses a case study of Mombasa and adjacent townships to analyse the role played by tourism as an option for sustainable local community development. It examines tourist motivations for visiting Mombasa, their responses to the area and sets this study against local residents’ views of the tourist industry.
The study population consisted of: (1) local people living inMombasa and the adjacent area and (2) tourists in the same area. Cluster sampling was applied to select the sampling units (i.e. Kisauni, Likoni and Changamwe) where most local people reside. Convenience sampling techniques were applied to recruit respondents from each sampling unit. Data collection was by a combination of questionnaires, interviews and field observation. Questionnaires and field interviews were administered in locations such as hotels and restaurants, entertainment centres, attraction sites and along the streets and residential areas. In addition, scheduled interviews and structured dialogue was conducted with selected private and public sector representatives, local community leaders and politicians.
Two types of questionnaires were administered – one for local people and the other for tourists. Each questionnaire was divided into three sections. The first section covered general sociodemographic attributes, while the second section addressed overall issues on tourism development such as existing tourist attractions, forms of interactions between residents and tourists, and the use of local tourism resources and recreational facilities. The last section of the questionnaire probed the role of tourism as a tool for local socio-economic development including
existing forms of tourism employment, local decisionmaking processes, ownership and management of tourism resources, forms of tourism marketing and the distribution of tourism revenues among various stakeholders.
This study was undertaken from June to July 2002. Two hundred and twentyseven international tourists and a similar number of local residents were interviewed. The data collected was organised, tabulated and analysed using
computer statistical packages.
Research Findings International tourists A summary of findings is given in Table 2. Eighty percent of the international tourists were travelling under an inclusive tour package. As is usually
the characteristic of all-inclusive tour package travel arrangements, most international tourists (87%) stated that they were staying in high-class resort hotels and condominiums (i.e. 3- to 5-star hotels) for a period of 7–21 days. Most of these grand tourism and hospitality establishments are under the ownership and management of multinational and foreign investors including Hayes and Javuis, Lonhro Corporation, United Tour companies, Kuoni, Africa Club, Universal Safari Tours, Pollmans, Franco Russo and Grand Viaggi.
A significant 53% (Cramer’s V = 0.541) of the international tourists stated that it was mainly the unique and diverse wildlife attractions that motivated them to visit Kenya. Eighteen percent listed the country’s pleasant weather conditions and 15% listed unique indigenous cultures. It can be argued that these motivational attributes derive from and/or are influenced by the marketing strategies used by overseas tour operators, particularly when marketing
Third World destinations such as Kenya. Commercials appearing in print and in the electronic media market Kenya as a tourist destination for the ‘Big Five’ (Elephant, Lion, Rhino, Leopard and Buffalo). Little effort is expended in giving meaningful information about Kenya’s diverse cultural and nature-based attractions.
When asked to name what they liked most on their trip, 40% of the tourists listed the friendly character of the local residents. Other aspects that the tourists liked included visiting Fort Jesus (an imposing 17th Century Fort built by Portuguese sailors), the tranquil and pristine tropical beaches and the warm and pleasant weather conditions.
Table 2 Interview responses of international tourists Item No. of respondents Percentage (%) Reasons for visit
(a) Unique cultural attractions 29 15.2 (b) Pristine tropical beaches 26 13.6 (c) Unique wildlife attractions 101 52.9 (d) Pleasant climate 35 18.3 Purpose of the visit (a) Holiday 170 91.9
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