★1. SLA (Second language acquisition) is the process by which a language other than the mother tongue is learnt in a natural setting or in a c
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★2. Acquisition vs. Learning (Krashen1982)
Acquisition implicit, subconscious informal situations uses grammatical 'feel' depends on attitude Learning explicit, conscious formal situations uses grammatical rules depends on aptitude stable order of acquisition simple to complex order of learning Acquisition refers to the learning of a language unconsciously under natural settings where learners pay attention only to the meanings or contents rather than forms or grammars.
Learning refers to the learning of a language consciously under educational settings where learners mainly pay attention to forms or grammars. 3. Factors affecting SLA Social factors (external factors) Learner factors (internal factors)
Social factors (external factors)
Social context
Language policy and the attitude of the public sector;
Social demand
With the trend of globalization of the world economy , it is widely accepted among educators and national leaders that proficiency in another language is an indispensable quality of educated people
Learner factors (internal factors)
Motivation ，Age ，Learning strategy 4. Behaviorist learning theory
Behaviorist learning theory is a general theory of learning (i.e. it applies to all kinds of learning, not just language learning). It views learning as the formation of habits. The association of a particular response with a particular stimulus constituted a habit. It is formed when a particular stimulus became regularly linked with a particular response.
When applied to SLA, the process of second language acquisition is regarded as a process of habit formation.
5. The causes of errors according to behaviorism
Differences between the first and second language create learning difficulty which results in errors.
Behaviorist learning theory predicts that transfer will take place from the first to the second language. Transfer will be negative when there is proactive inhibition. In this case errors will result.
Errors, according to behaviorist theory, were the result of non-learning, rather than wrong learning.
The means used to predict potential errors by behaviorists is Contrastive Analysis. 6. Structuralism
Language was viewed as a coded system consisting of structurally related elements (phonemes, morphemes, words, structures and sentence patterns) 7. What is contrastive analysis (CA)?
Contrastive analysis is an inductive investigative approach based on the distinctive elements in a language. It involves the comparison of two or more languages or subsystems of languages in order to determine both the differences and similarities between them. It could also be done within one language. Contrastive analysis can be both theoretical and applied according to varied purposes.
8. Contrastive Analysis Hypothesis (CAH)
Contrastive analysis is a way of comparing languages in order to determine potential errors for the ultimate purpose of isolating what needs to be learned and what does not need to be learned in an L2 situation.
According to CAH, L2 errors are result of differences between the learner’s first language and the target language. The strong form of the hypothesis claims that these differences can be used to predict all errors that will occur. The weak form of the hypothesis claims that these differences can be used to identify some out of the total errors that actually arise.
9.difference vs difficulty
“Difference” is a linguistic concept, whereas “difficulty” is a psychological concept. Therefore, the level of learning difficulty cannot be inferred directly from the degree of difference between two language systems.
10. Definition of Error analysis (EA)
the study and analysis of the errors made by second and foreign language learners (Longman Dictionary of Applied Linguistics, p.96).
It involves collecting samples of learner language, identifying the errors in these samples, describing these errors, classifying them according to their hypothesized causes, and evaluating theirs seriousness.
11. Interlingual error: deviated forms resulting from the interference of one’s L1, or the negative transfer of one’s mother tongue.
Intralingual error: ①deviated forms in learner language that reflect learners’ transitional competence and which are the results of such learning process as overgeneralization. ②confusion of L2 rules 12. Factors causing errors 1. Language transfer 2. Overgeneralization 3. Learner differences 3. Strategies in L2 learning
5. Strategies of L2 communication
e.g. The two students changed eyes and eyebrows in class. 13. Types of learner strategy
Learning strategy, Production strategy 表达策略 Communication strategy:
Communication strategies are employed when learners are faced with the task of communicating meanings for which they lack the requisite linguistic knowledge. Typical communication strategies are paraphrase and mime. 14. Classifications of learning strategy(Cohen 2006) (2) By function: Metacognitive; Cognitive; Socio-affective
(3) By skill: listening, speaking, reading, writing, vocabulary, or translation strategies.
15. Meta-cognitive strategies
Meta-cognitive strategy is the planning for learning, thinking about the learning process, monitoring of one’s production or comprehension, and evaluating learning after an activity is completed. 16. Cognitive strategies
Cognitive strategies refer to the steps or operations used in learning or problem-solving that require direct analysis, transformation, or synthesis of learning material.
Repetition, Resourcing, Directed physical response, Translation, Grouping, Note-taking , Deduction Recombination, Imagery, Auditory representation,
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