Does Happiness Lead to Success幸福的人更容易成功吗(3)

Thecharacteristicsrelatedtopositiveaffectincludeconfidence,optimism,andself-efficacy;likabilityandpositiveconstrualsofothers;sociability,activity,andenergy;prosocialbehavior;immu-nityandphysicalwell-being;effectivecopingwithchallengeandstress;andoriginalityandflexibility.Whattheseattributesshareisthattheyallencourageactiveinvolvementwithgoalpursuitsandwiththeenvironment.Whenallisgoingwell,apersonisnotwellservedbywithdrawingintoaself-protectivestanceinwhichtheprimaryaimistoprotecthisorherexistingresourcesandtoavoidharm—aprocessmarkingtheexperienceofnegativeemotions.Positiveemotionsproducethetendencytoapproachratherthantoavoidandtopreparetheindividualtoseekoutandundertakenewgoals.Thus,weproposethatthesuccessofhappypeoplerestsontwomainfactors.First,becausehappypeopleexperiencefrequentpositivemoods,theyhaveagreaterlikelihoodofworkingactivelytowardnewgoalswhileexperiencingthosemoods.Second,happypeopleareinpossessionofpastskillsandresources,whichtheyhavebuiltovertimeduringpreviouspleasantmoods.

Thisunifyingframeworkbuildsonseveralearlierbodiesofwork—thebroaden-and-buildmodelofpositiveemotions(Fredrickson,1998,2001),thenotionthatpositiveemotionscon-veyspecificinformationtotheperson(Ortony,Clore,&Collins,1988),theideaofpositivityoffset(Ito&Cacioppo,1999),workontheapproach-relatedaspectsofPA(Watson,2000),and,fi-nally,Isen’s(e.g.,2000)groundbreakingresearchonthebehaviorsthatfollowpositivemoodinductions.Weextendtheearlierworkinpredictingthatchronicallyhappypeopleareingeneralmoresuccessful,andthattheirsuccessisinlargepartaconsequenceoftheirhappinessandfrequentexperienceofPA.Althoughthevastmajorityofresearchonemotionshasbeenonnegativestates,abodyofliteraturehasnowaccumulatedthathighlightstheimpor-tanceofpositiveemotionsinpeople’slong-termflourishing.

ClassesofEvidence

Figure1displaysourgeneralconceptualmodel,whichproposesthatsuccessfuloutcomesarecausedbyhappinessanddonotmerelycorrelatewithitorfollowfromit.Specifically,belowthe

conceptualmodel,wedisplayfourclassesofevidencethatcanbeusedtotestit.Thefirsttypeofevidence(TypeA)representspositivecorrelationsderivedfromcross-sectionalstudies.Al-thoughitisatruismthatcorrelationdoesnotimplycausation,correlationsmustgenerallybepositivetobeconsistentwithprop-ositionsaboutcausality.Exceptintherarecaseinwhichstrongthird-variablesuppressoreffectsexistacrossstudies,anabsenceofcorrelationbetweentwovariablesindicatesanabsenceofcausalityineitherdirection.Thus,correlationalevidenceisgermanetoourargumentbecausetheabsenceofpositivecorrelationssuggeststhathappinessdoesnotcausesuccess.

Thesecondclassofevidence(TypeB)isbasedonlongitudinalresearch,andissomewhatmoreinformativeaboutcausaldirectionthancross-sectionalcorrelations.Ifonevariableprecedesanotherintimeandotherpotentialcausalvariablesarestatisticallycon-trolled,theresultingcausalmodelcanbeusedtorejectacausalhypothesis.IncasesinwhichchangesinvariableXareshowntoprecedechangesinvariableY,thisformofevidenceisevenmorestronglysupportiveofacausalconnection,althoughtheinfluenceofthirdvariablesmightstillcontaminatetheconclusionsandleavethedirectionofcauseindoubt.EvidenceofTypeC,theclassiclaboratoryexperiment,iscommonlybelievedtorepresentthestrongestevidenceforcausality,althougheveninthiscaseitcanbedifficulttodetermineexactlywhataspectoftheexperimentalmanipulationledtochangesinthedependentvariable.Finally,long-termexperimentalinterventionstudies(TypeDevidence)wouldofferthestrongesttestofourcausalmodel,althoughagaintheactiveingredientsinthecausalchainareusuallynotknownwithcertainty.

EmpiricalTestsofModelandOrganizationalStrategy

Becausenosinglestudyortypeofevidenceisdefinitive,anargumentforcausalitycanbestbemadewhenvariousclassesofevidenceallconvergeonthesameconclusion.Therefore,wedocumentseveraltypesofevidenceinourarticleinordertomostrigorouslytesttheideathathappinessleadstosuccess.Ourreviewcoversthefirstthreeclassesofevidence(TypesA,B,andC)andisorganizedaroundfivefocalquestionsarisingfromthesethreecategories:

1.

Cross-sectionalstudies(TypeA)

Question1:Arehappypeoplesuccessfulpeople?Question2:Arelong-termhappinessandshort-termPAassociatedwithbehaviorsparallelingsuccess—thatis,withadaptivecharacteristicsandskills?2.

Longitudinalstudies(TypeB)

Question3:Doeshappinessprecedesuccess?

Question4:Dohappinessandpositiveaffectprecedebehaviorsparallelingsuccess?3.

Experimentalstudies(TypeC)

Question5:Doespositiveaffectleadtobehaviorsparallelingsuccess?

First,wedocumenttheextensivecross-sectionalcorrelationalevidence(TypeA),asshowninFigure1.Thefirstquestionaddressedbythisevidenceistheonethatformsthebasisofourcausalhypothesis—thatis,arehappypeoplemorelikelytosuc-

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